|
| | Balance Of Payments | Foreign Exchange Reserves | External Debt | Exchange Rate Management | International Developments | | | 6.1. The external sector continued to be comfortable in 1999-2000, notwithstanding a sharp rise in the oil import bill on account of the hardening of international crude oil prices. During the year, India's merchandise exports showed a turnaround partly reflecting the economic recovery the world over. With private transfers and software exports exhibiting continued buoyancy, the current account deficit (CAD) was restricted to 0.9 per cent of GDP in 1999-2000. Strong capital flows led by a renewal in portfolio inflows resulted in an overall balance of payments (BoP) surplus for the fourth successive year. This enabled an increase in foreign exchange reserves by US $ 5,546 million during the year to US$38,036 million by end-March 2000. | | | 6.2. There can, however, be no room for complacency. The external situation continues to be characterised by several uncertainties including the outlook for growth in major industrial economies, high oil prices and the evolving domestic situation. Some pressures on the external front have already become evident in the early months of the current fiscal year. It is, therefore, imperative to remain vigilant and provide maximum support to the country's export efforts, both for goods and services, and to foreign direct investment. | | | BALANCE OF PAYMENTS | | | 6.3. The two major characteristics of the BoP position during 1999-2000, on the positive side, were the turnaround in exports of goods and a pick up in capital inflows. These developments could alleviate the pressures posed by the sharp increase in oil imports and a rise, albeit moderate in the non-oil non-gold imports. Thus, although the recovery in exports was sharp, the trade deficit in 1999-2000 turned out to be higher than in the preceding year. With net invisibles posting a higher surplus, the CAD remained broadly at the preceding year's level. Capital inflows, augmented mainly by portfolio investment and non-resident Indian (NRI) deposits, were much above the CAD. Consequently, the BoP recorded an overall surplus of US $ 6,402 million in 1999-2000 (Table 6.1 and Appendix Table VI.1). | | | Table 6.1: India's Overall Balance of Payments |
|
|
|
| (US $ million)
|
|
| Item
| 1999-2000
| 1998-99
|
|
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 1. | Current Account | | | | | i) | Exports, fob | 38,285 | 34,298 | | | ii) | Imports, cif | 55,383 | 47,544 | | | iii) | Trade Balance | -17,098 | -13,246 | | | iv) | Invisibles, net | 12,935 | 9,208 | | | v) | Current Account Balance | -4,163 | -4,038 | | | | | | | 2. | Capital Account | 10,242 | 8,565 | | | | of which : | | | | | i) | External Assistance, net | 901 | 820 | | | ii) | Commercial Borrowings, net | 313 | 4,362 | | | iii) | NRI Deposits, net | 2,140 | 1,742 | | | iv) | Foreign Investment, net | 5,191 | 2,412 | 3. | Overall Balance # | 6,402 | 4,222 | 4. | Monetary Movements | -6,402 | -4,222 | 5. | IMF, net | -260 | -393 | 6.
| Reserves and Monetary Gold (Increase - , Decrease +)
| -6,142
| -3,829
| | | # Includes errors and omissions | | |
Merchandise Trade (as per DGCI&S Data) | | | 6.4 The trade deficit, according to the provisional data released by the Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics (DGCI&S), worked out higher at US $ 9.6 billion during 1999-2000 than that of US $ 9.2 billion during 1998-99. This was essentially fuelled by a sharp increase in the oil import bill despite the strong recovery in exports after three years (Appendix Table VI.2). India's total exports, at US $ 37.6 billion, recorded an increase of 13.2 per cent during 1999-2000 (over the final export figures of 1998-99), in contrast to the decline of 5.1 per cent during 1998-99. Imports, at US $ 47.2 billion, accelerated to 11.4 per cent during 1999-2000 from 2.2 per cent during 1998-99. Non-oil imports increased by 2.1 per cent in 1999-2000 as against the increase of 8.0 per cent in the preceding year. |
Table 6.2: India's Balance of Payments : Key Indicators |
|
|
|
|
|
| (Per cent)
|
| Indicator
| 1999-2000
| 1998-99
| 1997-98
| 1996-97
| 1990-91
|
|
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 1. | Trade | | | | | | | | i) | Exports / GDP | 8.5 | 8.2 | 8.8 | 8.9 | 6.2 | | | ii) | Imports / GDP | 12.3 | 11.3 | 12.6 | 12.8 | 9.4 | | | iii) | Income Terms of Trade (Base: 1978-79=100) | .. | 598.5 | 562.8 | 519.7 | 212.2 | | | | Annual Growth Rate | .. | 6.3 | 8.3 | -1.9 | 0.2 | | | iv) | Exports Volume Growth | .. | 3.4 | -6.3 | 7.2 | 11.0 | | | | | | | | | | 2. | Invisibles Account | | | | | | | | i) | Invisible Receipts / GDP | 6.7 | 6.2 | 5.7 | 5.6 | 2.5 | | | ii) | Invisible Payments / GDP | 3.9 | 4.0 | 3.3 | 2.9 | 2.6 | | | iii) | Invisibles (net) / GDP | 2.9 | 2.2 | 2.4 | 2.7 | -0.1 | | | | | | | | | | 3. | Current Account | | | | | | | | i) | Current Receipts @ / GDP | 15.2 | 14.3 | 14.4 | 14.4 | 8.5 | | | ii) | Current Receipts Growth @ | 14.2 | 2.1 | 6.2 | 11.1 | 6.6 | | | iii) | Current Receipts @ / Current Payments | 93.8 | 93.2 | 90.9 | 91.6 | 71.5 | | | iv) | CAD / GDP | -0.9 | -1.0 | -1.4 | -1.2 | -3.2 | | | | | | | | | | 4. | Capital Account | | | | | | | | i) | Foreign Investment / GDP | 1.1 | 0.6 | 1.3 | 1.6 | 0.03 | | | ii) | Foreign Investment / Exports | 13.4 | 6.7 | 15.0 | 17.5 | 0.6 | | | | | | | | | | 5. | Others | | | | | | | | i) | Debt-GDP Ratio | 22.0 | 23.5 | 24.4 | 24.7 | 30.4 | | | ii) | Debt-Service Ratio | 16.0 | 18.0 | 19.0 | 21.2 | 35.3 | | | iii) | Liability Service Ratio | 16.8 | 19.1 | 20.0 | 21.7 | 35.6 |
| iv)
| Import Cover of Reserves (in months)
| 8.2
| 8.2
| 6.9
| 6.5
| 2.5
| @ Excluding official transfers. .. Not available. | | | | | |
| | 
| | | 6.5 The exports of manufactured products grew by 14.3 per cent during 1999-2000 in contrast to a decline of 2.8 per cent during 1998-99. The turnaround was seen in respect of all major manufactured items, except leather and leather manufactures. Export growth in the case of gems and jewellery at 28.8 per cent was higher as compared with 10.9 per cent during 1998-99. Exports of engineering goods posted a growth of 11.2 per cent in contrast to the decline of 16.3 per cent during 1998-99. Textile exports, too, recovered to post a growth of 10.9 per cent during 1999-2000 in contrast to a decline of 2.2 per cent during the previous year. The exports of agriculture and allied products, on the other hand, declined by 8.9 per cent during 1999-2000 with a sharp fall in the exports of tea (24.3 per cent), coffee (23.4 per cent) and rice (52.0 per cent) (Chart VI.1 and Appendix Table VI.3). | | | 6.6. The turnaround in export growth during 1999-2000 reflected the buoyancy in world demand, which in turn, could be attributed to a higher growth in world output. The economic recovery was discernible in respect of the countries/regions that are the major destinations for India's exports. In addition, trade policy initiatives and a stable domestic macroeconomic environment have, to an extent, contributed to the export increase. | | | 6.7. With regard to the direction of India's exports, exports to the OECD countries grew by 12.5 per cent during 1999-2000, with those to North America increasing by 19.0 per cent. Exports to developing countries of Asia rose by 20.2 per cent and those to Eastern Europe by 23.9 per cent. | | | 6.8. The trends in imports were marked by wide variations across commodity-groups (Appendix Table VI.4). The imports of petroleum, petroleum products and related material increased by 63.8 per cent during 1999-2000 in sharp contrast to a decline of 21.6 per cent during the previous year. The sharp rise in POL imports reflects the increase in international oil prices as also the relative stagnation in domestic oil production, given the predominantly growth-driven consumption behaviour. The increase in oil prices has, however, not posed a serious threat to world economic stability as was the case in respect of the earlier oil shocks (Box VI.1). The sharp increase in the import of pearls, precious and semi-precious stones (43.0 per cent during 1999-2000) could be attributed to the pick up in the exports of gems and jewellery. Fertiliser imports also increased sharply by 28.8 per cent on account of a shortfall in domestic production vis-a-vis demand. The imports of certain industrial raw materials and intermediate goods increased during 1999-2000, broadly reflecting the improvement in manufacturing output. Capital goods imports, however, declined by 19.8 per cent during 1999-2000. These imports have remained subdued since 1996-97, reflecting the sluggishness in domestic investment demand coupled with existence of under-utilisation of production capacities. The imports of gold and silver (excluding imports through passenger baggage) declined by 13.2 per cent after recording sharp increases during the past couple of years. These imports, at US $ 4.4 billion, still accounted for 9.3 per cent of India's total imports during 1999-2000. The sharp decline in gold imports reflected a combination of factors such as measures to liberalise bullion trade, the hike in gold import duties and uncertainty in the world gold market during 1999-2000 (Box VI.2). Excluding oil and gold and silver, imports recorded a moderate increase of 4.6 per cent in 1999-2000 as compared with 2.5 per cent in 1998-99, notwithstanding the ongoing elimination of quantitative restrictions on a wide range of imports (Chart VI.2). | | | 6.9 Data on the sources of India's imports showed that imports from the OPEC countries rose by 44.4 per cent during 1999-2000, mainly because of the increase in oil prices. Imports also increased sharply from developing countries in Africa (31.4 per cent) and countries in Eastern Europe (16.3 per cent). | | | 6.10 Present expectations about the continuation of higher growth rates of world GDP during 2000 and 2001 augur well for India's export prospects. The actual export performance would, however, critically depend upon India's competitive strength and the developments in multilateral trading arrangements. While India's trade policy measures undertaken during the recent years are in alignment with the country's multilateral commitments, there are several issues relating to the WTO provisions that have significant implications for India's future export performance (Box VI.3). | | | 
|
Box VI.1 | Impact of Petroleum Price Increase on Balance of Payments | | | The world economy has so far witnessed three bouts of oil price shocks - the first in 1973-74, the second in 1979-80 and the third in 1990. After remaining subdued in the early 1990s and falling substantially between 1996 and 1998, oil prices have risen since January 1999 as a result of production cuts by the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and higher global demand. | | | Oil price hikes typically generate cost-push inflation that leads to a fall in output and shifts in the terms of trade. The recent increase in oil prices has come after a sustained ebb in inflation adjusted oil prices. Moreover, the favourable global economic conditions such as unutilised capacity and low underlying inflationary pressure have dampened the adverse impact. But this time around, developing countries may be affected to a greater extent than the developed countries as the share of developing countries in oil consumption is estimated to have risen from 29 per cent in 1973 to 43 per cent in 1999. At the same time, the amount of oil consumed per real dollar of output has fallen by almost one-half in developed countries since the early 1970s due to development of efficient oil conservation techniques, decline in the proportion of heavy industries and the rise of the ';new economy'; driven by information and technology. A recent study suggests that the tripling of oil prices from US $ 10/barrel to US $ 30/barrel would increase the oil import bill of developed countries by less than one per cent of their GDP (lower than half the terms of trade loss during each of the previous oil shocks). In the case of developing countries, it is estimated that GDP growth would shrink by 0.3 percentage point in 2000 and by a further 0.6 percentage point in 2001, if the oil prices increase from US $ 20 per barrel to US $ 30 per barrel. The maximum incidence of shock will be borne by oil-importing countries with a non-diversified agricultural export base. | | | India ranks high among developing countries in oil consumption. Total consumption of petroleum products in India worked out to around 89 million tonnes during 1998-99 with an average rate of growth of consumption of 6.3 per cent per year during the 1990s and an income elasticity of about 1.1. Total refinery capacity in India as on March 1999 amounted to 69.0 million metric tonnes per annum (mmtpa) as against the domestic crude oil availability of about 33 mmtpa. With the refining capacity increasing to 103 mmtpa by October 1999, there would be a gap of around 65 per cent in the domestic availability of crude vis-a-vis the refining capacity. | | | Reflecting the increasing domestic demand, India's oil import bill grew between 1974-75 and 1990-91 over fourfold to US $ 6,028 million ( Table 6.3). In terms of severity, the oil shocks had a crippling effect on the BoP, apart from aggravating inflationary pressures and causing output losses. In case of each of the shocks, the trade deficit shot up to high levels, leading to an increase in CAD and loss of foreign exchange reserves. |
Table 6.3: Indicators of the Impact of POL Import |
|
|
|
|
| (Per cent)
| Year | Oil import | Ratio of | CAD/ | CAD/ | Unit | | | bill | oil im- | GDP | GDP | crude oil | | | (in US $ | ports/ | ratio | ratio (ex- | import | | | million) | total | | cluding | price | | | | imports | | oil im- | (US $ / |
|
|
|
| ports)
| barrel) @
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| | | | | | | | 1974-75 | 1,457 | 25.9 | 1.3 | -0.3 | 11.6 | | | | | | | | 1980-81 | 6,655 | 40.8 | 1.6 | -2.2 | 36.7 | | | | | | | | 1990-91 | 6,028 | 21.6 | 3.2 | 1.2 | 23.0 | | | | | | | | 1996-97 | 10,036 | 20.5 | 1.2 | -1.4 | 20.4 | | | | | | | | 1999-2000
| 10,482
| 18.9
| 0.9
| -1.4
| 18.1
| @ Calendar-year average. | Note: (-) indicates surplus. |
The rise in the oil import bill during 1999-2000 was, however, absorbed without any undue pressure on the current account deficit. As the demand for non-oil imports was moderate, the adverse impact of the oil price rise on inflation and output was contained by limiting its incidence on consumers. The Indian economy could face the present oil price hike better than in the past episodes. The share of oil imports in the total import bill has fallen since the earlier oil price shocks. Besides, the sharp increase in domestic refinery capacity would enable the substitution of cheaper crude oil imports for costlier finished petroleum products. | | | References |
1. | Basu, Sumit and Michael D. Patra, (1999), ';India's Petroleum Imports: A Material Balance Approach';, RBI Occasional Papers, Volume 20, No. 2. | 2. | The Economist (2000), Fuelling inflation, March 11. | 3. | International Monetary Fund, (1999), World Economic Outlook and Challenges of Global Adjustment, Washington DC, October. | 4. | The World Bank, (2000), Global Development Finance, Washington DC. |
Invisibles | | | 6.11 Invisible transactions remained buoyant with the surplus at US $ 12,935 million in 1999-2000 as compared with US $ 9,208 million during 1998-99 (Appendix Table VI.5). Private transfers from non-resident Indians continued to be an important source of invisible receipts. Remittances from Indians working in the US, UK, South-East Asia and continental Europe have expanded in comparison with the traditional base of the Middle-East. |
Box VI.2 | Import of Non-Monetary Gold | | | In value terms, import of gold (including silver) declined by 13.1 per cent to Rs.19,144 crore in 1999-2000 from Rs.22,037 crore. This could be attributed to factors like the sharp decline in imports by non-resident and returning Indians, uncertainty in the international market, arising from speculation about gold sales by European central banks, buoyant conditions in the domestic capital market and introduction of the Gold Deposit Scheme (GDS) in the third quarter of 1999-2000 to reduce dependence on imports. | | | With a view to reducing the dependence on import of gold as also to mobilising a portion of the privately held stock of gold in the country, the GDS was announced in the Union Budget for 1999-2000 and operationalised by the Reserve Bank of India in October 1999. The scheme seeks to provide depositors an opportunity to earn interest on their idle gold holdings along with the benefits of safety and security of holding without any cost, thereby encouraging investors to move away from physical holding of gold to gold-based financial assets. Banks authorised by the Reserve Bank to deal in gold could devise a scheme in accordance with their infrastructure for managing the scheme, expertise/experience in the gold business and proper risk management systems and their own assessment of the market. The scheme envisages acceptance of gold deposits from resident Indians in the form of ornaments, jewellery, bars, etc., which will be assayed to ascertain the purity of gold. The operation of the scheme would be open-ended, available on tap. There would be a maturity period of 3-7 years with an initial lock-in period to be specified by each bank. Banks would be free to fix their own interest rates in the scheme and would either issue a passbook or bond which would be transferable by endorsement and delivery. The depositors will receive refined gold on maturity. In order to provide requisite incentives to banks to mobilise deposits under the scheme and enable them to offer competitive return to depositors, banks have been exempted from maintenance of CRR on the gold deposits, except for the prescribed minimum CRR of 3 per cent. Rupee loans may be given against collateral of gold deposits. Authorised Dealers permitted to accept gold under the GDS may use exchange traded and over-the-counter hedging products available overseas to manage price risk. | | | The Reserve Bank has so far granted approval to the State Bank of India (SBI), the Indian Overseas Bank, the Corporation Bank, the Allahabad Bank and Canara Bank for launching of Gold Deposit Schemes. Permission has also been granted to the SBI to set up a joint venture for assaying of gold. The total quantity of gold mobilised under the GDS up to March 2000 amounted to 4.0 tonnes. | | | Reference |
1. | Reddy, Y.V., (2000), ';Gold in the Indian Economic System';, Monetary and Financial Sector Reforms in India: A Central Banker's Perspective, UBS Publishers, Mumbai. |
6.12 Software exports kept up their momentum and rose by 53 per cent to US $ 4,015 million in 1999-2000 on top of an increase of 49 per cent during the preceding year. Indian software companies draw their comparative advantage in the software business mainly on the basis of their cost-effectiveness, international quality and reliability (Box VI.4). In tandem with the liberalisation of current account and technology imports, payments on account of financial services, management services, office maintenance, advertising, royalties, licence fees etc. have increased. Consequently, miscellaneous payments increased from US $ 6,161 million in 1998-99 to US $ 6,924 million in 1999-2000. Despite subdued tourism earnings, net earnings in non-factor services increased substantially during 1999-2000 to US $ 3,856 million from US $ 2,165 million in 1998-99. Net income payments increased marginally to US $ 3,559 million during 1999-2000 due to higher interest payments on external liabilities. |
Box VI.3 | WTO and India | | | The World Trade Organisation (WTO), established in January 1995, as of June 30, 2000, has 137 members accounting for more than 90 per cent of world trade. About 30 countries are currently negotiating their accession to the WTO. The WTO deals with many vital areas of economic activity and incorporates enforceable rules and disciplines in these areas. India was a founding member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and is an original member of the WTO. | | | India embarked upon an economic and trade liberalisation policy since 1991 and has been bringing down accordingly, in recent years, its tariffs gradually to improve competitiveness, as well as in response to the tariff reduction commitments undertaken in the WTO. Similarly, there are many other areas of activity like agriculture, services and intellectual property rights in which India is shaping policies in the light of international obligations. | | | The Third Ministerial Conference of the WTO held at Seattle during November 30 - December 3, 1999 was expected to launch a new round of negotiations with a view to broaden as well as deepen the scope of WTO rules and disciplines. However, this conference could not arrive at a consensus regarding the subjects for possible negotiations or determine the parameters for conducting negotiations in some critical areas like agriculture. The conference also could not arrive at any decision in the implementation issues and concerns raised by a number of developing countries. The conference witnessed sharp differences among WTO members regarding the introduction of issues like core labour standards and environmental standards into the WTO. | | | During the preparatory process for the Seattle conference, and subsequent to the Seattle conference, India has been stressing the importance of finding meaningful solutions to the implementation issues and concerns raised by developing countries without linking such a solution to possible future multilateral trade negotiations. | | | In the area of agriculture, India has highlighted the need for developing countries with predominantly agrarian economies to have sufficient flexibility with regard to domestic support and market access commitments in order to adequately address their concerns relating to food security and rural employment. With regard to tariff rate quotas, which is a predominant feature of international trade in agriculture, India has stressed the importance of making the tariff rate quota administration more transparent, equitable and non-discriminatory in order to allow new/small scale developing countries' exporters to get market access. | | | In the area of subsidies, India has drawn attention of other members of the WTO to the existing inequities in the Subsidies Agreement and has stressed the need for ensuring that subsidies used for development, diversification and upgradation of industry are treated as non-actionable. | | | In the area of anti-dumping, India has stressed the importance of avoiding back-to-back anti-dumping investigations and the need for increasing the de-minimis levels provided for in different provisions of the Anti-dumping Agreement. | | | In the area of textiles and clothing, India has highlighted the need for making the integration process commercially meaningful and bringing forward the date for applying growth on growth for stage three. India has also pleaded for avoiding anti-dumping actions against textiles and clothing products, which are already under quota restrictions. | | | In the area of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and Technical Barriers to trade, India has drawn the attention of the WTO members to the need for international standard setting organisations to ensure the presence and active participation of countries at different levels of development and from all geographical regions, throughout all phases of standard setting. | | | In the case of the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) Agreement, India has made proposals for aligning the patent system in line with the provisions of the UN Convention on Bio-Diversity. | | | As a crossing issue, India has stressed the importance of making all special provisions operational and legally binding. | | | In order to address and resolve the implementation issues and concerns raised by developing countries, it has been decided that the General Council of the WTO will hold Special Sessions. A decision has been taken to the effect that in addressing the implementation issues, the General Council will assess the existing difficulties, identifying ways needed to resolve them and take decision for appropriate action. It has also been decided that the process should be completed not later than the Fourth Sessions of the Ministerial Conference. | | | Negotiations mandated in the area of agriculture and services have already commenced in the WTO. India is actively participating in these negotiations. In the agriculture negotiations, India is currently focusing on large subsidies provided to the agriculture sector by some developed countries resulting in significant distortion of international trade in agricultural products. In the services negotiations, India is currently stressing the need for increasing the participation of developing countries in the services trade and highlighting the progressive character of any liberalisation to be carried out in the next negotiations in line with Article XIX of the Services Agreement. | | | There are proposals primarily emanating from some developed country members of the WTO to initiate negotiations for a multilateral investment agreement in the WTO. As many countries including India are currently following a transparent and liberal foreign investment regime, India considers that there is no need for a multilateral investment agreement in the WTO involving undertaking of commitments in perpetuity by members. India believes that a binding multilateral investment agreement, which incorporates a pre-establishment national treatment obligation, will take away strategic policy options available to developing countries like India in pursuing their developmental objectives. It is also India's belief that even the present Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS) agreement has some adverse impact on the prospects of industrialisation of developing countries. | | | With regard to the proposal that the core labour standards be studied in the WTO from a trade perspective, India has argued that core labour standards are important by themselves and should continue to be dealt with under the auspices of the International Labour Organisation. India is against the idea of linking trade with core labour standards as well as the idea of adopting a sanctions-based approach to promote core labour standards. India is apprehensive that bringing core labour standards into WTO and thus linking it to trade would result in a situation where core labour standards will be used for protectionist purposes. | | | Several advanced countries have sought greater integration of environmental issues and trade policy, which implies allowing market access conditional upon fulfillment of certain environmental norms. It needs to be noted that the GATT 1994 contains provisions to address genuine environmental concerns and that certain environmental issues have already been addressed by the agreements within the WTO, e.g., the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) and Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS). India has opposed inclusion of environmental issues in trade negotiations as it may encourage trade restrictive measures. Further, as the limited resources of developing countries do not always allow the adoption of large-scale environment friendly technology, India has strongly pleaded for transfer of environmentally sound technology to developing countries at fair terms. | | | Box VI.4 | Trends in Software Exports | | | Software exports, with an average growth rate of around 50 per cent since 1995-96, have emerged as an important source of India's foreign exchange earnings, contributing substantially to invisible receipts. | | | Software exports take different forms depending upon the channels through which these are undertaken and are classified broadly into two forms, viz., on-site services, and off-site services. Software is developed by software professionals at the clients' site itself in case of the on-site route. In the case of the off-site channel, software services are developed in India and later on exported either in physical form (in floppy diskettes and compact disks) or in non-physical form (through such means as satellites, earth stations and e-mail). The bulk of software exports, however, occur in non-physical form. | | | Physical software exports are reported as a part of merchandise exports by the DGCI&S, while all software export receipts through the on-site and off-site routes brought into India are reported by Authorised Dealers (ADs) through R-returns and Softex Forms as a supplement to R-returns. Following the recommended accounting practices of the IMF Manual on BoP (5th edition), software exports in physical form are captured under the item ';merchandise exports'; in the data on India's BoP, while software exports through on-site and off-site routes are recorded under computer services in ';miscellaneous receipts'; which form part of ';non-factor services'; under invisibles. Table 6.4 provides the dimensions of growth of Indian software exports since the mid-1990s. |
Table 6.4: India's Software Exports
| Year | Rupees | US $ | Annual |
| crore
| million
| growth*(%)
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 1995-96 | 2,520 | 747 | 53 | 1996-97 | 3,900 | 1,099 | 47 | 1997-98 | 6,570 | 1,759 | 60 | 1998-99 | 11,064 | 2,626 | 49 | 1999-2000
| 17,412
| 4,015
| 53
| * In US dollars. | | | |
The National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM) has devised a format in consultation with the Reserve Bank for collection of information on software exports. While compiling the software exports data in India's BoP, figures provided by NASSCOM are used as a benchmark. Software exports have been separately indicated as part of 'miscellaneous receipts' in a special article in the April 1999 issue of the RBI Bulletin. | | | Reference |
1. | Reserve Bank of India, (1999), ';Invisibles in India's Balance of Payments';, RBI Bulletin, April. |
Current Account | | | 6.13 Despite a sharp rise in import payments, a marked recovery in exports and a buoyant surplus under invisibles helped to contain the current account deficit to US $ 4,163 million (0.9 per cent of GDP) during 1999-2000 as compared with US $ 4,038 million (1.0 per cent of GDP) in 1998-99 (Tables 6.1 and 6.2, Chart VI.3 and Appendix Table VI.1). Current receipts financed 93.8 per cent of current payments in 1999-2000 as against 93.2 per cent in the previous year. The current receipts in relation to GDP, one of the indicators of external sector sustainability, improved to 15.2 per cent during 1999-2000 from 14.3 per cent in 1998-99 (Table 6.2 and Chart VI.4). The debt-service ratio declined to 16.0 per cent in 1999-2000 from 18.0 per cent during 1998-99. | | | 
| | | 
| | | 6.14 Notwithstanding these favourable developments, persistence of high international oil prices would keep up the pressure on the current account. The imports of gold and silver, albeit lower at US $ 4,418 million in 1999-2000 as against US$ 5,238 million in the previous year, continued to remain sizeable. While the sustained buoyancy in the invisibles receipts - in particular the surge in software exports, technology related services and workers' remittances - could largely absorb the impact of higher import payments, there is a need to step up merchandise exports in order to ensure continued sustainability of the current account. | | | Capital Account | | | 6.15 The restoration of orderly conditions in the international financial markets coupled with pro-active policy initiatives on macroeconomic management prompted a marked shift in the volume and composition of capital flows during 1999-2000. While net external commercial borrowings remained subdued, there was a significant recovery in the flow of foreign investment and non-resident deposits. As a result, capital flows rose from US $ 8.6 billion during 1998-99 to US $ 10.2 billion in 1999-2000 with an increase in the share of non-debt flows to 50.7 per cent from 28.2 per cent (Appendix Table VI.6). | | | Foreign Investment | | | 6.16 Foreign investment recovered during 1999-2000 reflecting the stability of the domestic currency, broad-based industrial revival, easing of economic sanctions and return of orderliness in the financial markets coupled with strong stock market performance. Foreign investment flows that had plummeted from US $ 5,385 million in 1997-98 to US $ 2,401 million in 1998-99 recovered to US $ 5,181 million in 1999-2000 (Table 6.5). This increase could largely be attributed to portfolio investment and greater recourse to the international markets by Indian corporates. While investments by foreign institutional investors increased by US $ 2,135 million during 1999-2000 in contrast to a decline of US $ 390 million during 1998-99, the amount raised through the GDR/ADR route increased by US $ 768 million from US $ 270 million in the previous year. There was, however, a fall in foreign direct investment (FDI) from US $ 2,462 million during 1998-99 to US $ 2,155 million during 1999-2000, which could be partly on account of sluggish domestic investment demand. | | | Table 6.5: Foreign Investment Flows |
|
|
|
|
| (US $ million)
|
|
|
| Items 1999-2000P
| 1998-99
| 1997-98
|
|
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| A. | Direct Investment | 2,155 | 2,462 | 3,557 | | | a) | Government | | | | | | | (SIA/FIPB) | 1,410 | 1,821 | 2,754 | | | b) | RBI | 171 | 179 | 202 | | | c) | NRI | 84 | 62 | 241 | | | d) | Acquisition of | | | | | | | shares * | 490 | 400 | 360 | | | | | | | | B. | Portfolio Investment | 3,026 | -61 | 1,828 | | | a) | GDRs/ADRs # | 768 | 270 | 645 | | | b) | FIIs @ | 2,135 | -390 | 979 | | | c) | Off-shore funds | | | | | | | and others | 123 | 59 | 204 |
| Total (A+B)
| 5,181
| 2,401
| 5,385
|
P | Provisional. | * | Relates to acquisition of shares of Indian companies by non-residents under Section 29 of FERA. | # | Represents the amount raised by Indian corporates through Global Depository Receipts (GDRs)/ American Depository Receipts (ADRs). @ Represents net inflow of funds by Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs). | | | | Note: | Data on foreign investment presented here represent gross inflows into the country and may not tally with the data presented in other tables which include direct imports against foreign investment, Indian investment abroad as well as disinvestment. |
6.17 A number of policy initiatives were taken during the year to further facilitate inflows of foreign investment. In August 1999, a Foreign Investment Implementation Authority (FIIA) was established for speedy conversion of approvals to actual flows. The Insurance Regulatory and Development Act (IRDA) was passed in December 1999 permitting foreign equity participation in domestic private insurance companies up to 26 per cent of the paid-up capital. Moreover, investments in all sectors, except for a small negative list, were placed, in February 2000, under automatic route for direct investments. Indian companies were allowed, subject to specified norms, to raise funds for investments through issue of ADRs/GDRs without prior government approval and up to 50 per cent of these proceeds were allowed for acquisition of companies in overseas markets. Indian companies could acquire companies engaged in information technology and entertainment software, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology in the overseas market through stock-swap options up to US $ 100 million on automatic basis or ten times the export earnings during the preceding financial year as reflected in the audited balance sheet, whichever is lower. Furthermore, the Union Budget 2000-01 raised the limit of investment by FIIs in equity shares of Indian companies from 30 per cent to 40 per cent. In addition, with a view to expanding the investor base, foreign corporates and high net worth individuals were permitted to invest in Indian markets through FIIs registered with SEBI. | | | 6.18 The source and direction of foreign direct investment flows remained by and large unchanged during the 1990s. Companies registered in Mauritius and the US were the principal source of foreign direct investment in India during 1999-2000 followed by Japan and Italy (Table 6.6). The bulk of this foreign investment was channeled into 'engineering industries', 'electronics and electrical equipment', 'food and dairy products', 'chemicals and allied products' and 'services' (Table 6.7). | | | Non-Resident Deposits | | | 6.19 The outstanding balances under nonresident deposit schemes continued their increasing trend reflecting the overall confidence of non-resident Indians in the economy. Net inflows rose by US $ 2,141 million in 1999-2000 on top of US $ 1,776 million in the previous year (Table 6.8). While outstanding balances under the non-resident external rupee account [NR(E)RA] scheme and non-resident non-repatriable rupee deposit [NR(NR)RD] scheme continued to increase, foreign currency non-resident [FCNR(B)] accounts recorded accretion following a decline during 1998-99. The new non-resident special rupee account [NR(S)RA] is yet to record any significant inflow. Consistent with the policy of discouraging short-term debt and elongating the maturity profile of the external debt portfolio, the minimum maturity of FCNR(B) deposits was raised to one year. At the same time, reserve requirements in respect of incremental FCNR(B) deposits were removed so as to create a level playing field among all nonresident deposits schemes. It may be mentioned that a significant proportion of balances in FCNR(B) accounts is held abroad by banks and is thus in the form of foreign currency assets. |
Table 6.6: Foreign Investment - Country-wise Inflows* |
| | | | | | | | Source | (Rupees crore)
| (US $ million)
|
| 1999-2000P
| 1998-99
| 1997-98
| 1999-2000P
| 1998-99
| 1997-98
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| Mauritius | 2,187 | 2,482 | 3,346 | 501 | 590 | 900 | U.S.A. | 1,551 | 1,905 | 2,555 | 355 | 453 | 687 | Japan | 622 | 989 | 608 | 142 | 235 | 164 | Italy | 548 | 486 | 160 | 125 | 116 | 43 | Germany | 135 | 478 | 563 | 31 | 114 | 151 | South Korea | 35 | 359 | 1,238 | 8 | 85 | 333 | Netherlands | 358 | 224 | 591 | 82 | 53 | 159 | Others | 1,468 | 1,491 | 1,927 | 337 | 354 | 518 | Total
| 6,904
| 8,414
| 10,986
| 1,581
| 2,000
| 2,956
|
* Exclude inflows under the NRI direct investment route through the Reserve Bank and inflows due to acquisition of shares under Section 29 of FERA. |
Table 6.7: Foreign Investment - Industry-wise Inflows* |
Sector | (Rupees crore)
| (US $ million)
|
| 1999-2000P
| 1998-99
| 1997-98
| 1999-2000P
| 1998-99
| 1997-98
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| Chemical and allied products | 523 | 1,580 | 956 | 120 | 376 | 257 | Engineering | 1,423 | 1,800 | 2,155 | 326 | 428 | 580 | Electronics and electrical equipment | 750 | 960 | 2,396 | 172 | 228 | 645 | Services | 506 | 1,550 | 1,194 | 116 | 368 | 321 | Food and dairy products | 529 | 78 | 418 | 121 | 19 | 112 | Computers | 433 | 447 | 517 | 99 | 106 | 139 | Pharmaceuticals | 236 | 120 | 126 | 54 | 28 | 34 | Finance | 86 | 778 | 550 | 20 | 185 | 148 | Others | 2,418 | 1,103 | 2,675 | 553 | 262 | 720 | Total
| 6,904
| 8,414
| 10,986
| 1,581
| 2,000
| 2,956
|
* Exclude inflows under the NRI direct investment route through the Reserve Bank and inflows due to acquisition of shares under Section 29 of FERA. |
Table 6.8: Balances under NRI Deposit Schemes |
| | | | | | |
|
|
|
|
| (US $ million)
| | | Scheme | Balance (End-March)
| Variation @
|
|
| 2000
| 1999
| 1999-2000
| 1998-99
|
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 1. | FCNR(A) | 0 | 0 | 0 | -1 | 2. | FCNR(B) | 9,069 | 8,323 | 746 | -144 | 3. | NR(E)RA | 6,992 | 6,220 | 948 | 980 | 4. | NR(NR)RD | 7,037 | 6,758 | 447 | 941 |
| Total
| 23,098
| 21,301
| 2,141
| 1,776
| | | | | | | |
@ | All the figures are inclusive of accrued interest and valuation arising on account of fluctuations in non- dollar currencies against the US dollar. |
Notes: | 1. | Variations do not match with the differences between the outstanding stocks for rupee deposits on account of the exchange rate fluctuations during the year. | | | 2. | Variations presented in this table may differ from data presented in other tables against NRI deposits on account of valuation factors. |
External Assistance | | | 6.20 Net inflow of external assistance (gross utilisation less repayments) at US $ 1,096 million during 1999-2000 was higher than that of US $ 853 million in the previous year. On the other hand, as has been the trend during the past few years, there was a negative transfer of resources (sum of loans and grants less repayments of principal and interest) from the country to the tune of US $ 167 million during 1999-2000 (Appendix Table VI.7). | | | External Commercial Borrowings | | | 6.21 The sluggish trend in disbursements under external commercial borrowings (ECBs) continued in 1999-2000. The muted demand in ECB was reflected in the fall in the value of approvals in 1999-2000 to US$3,500 million as against US$5,200 million in the previous year. Disbursements under ECB amounted to US$3,187 million during 1999-2000 as against US $ 7,226 million (including US$4,230 million mobilised through RIBs) during 1998-99. With amortisation at US$2,874 million in 1999-2000 being almost the same as in the previous year, the net inflow amounted to US$313 million during the year as against US$4,362 million including RIBs (US$132 million excluding RIBs) during 1998-99. | | | 6.22 The ECB policy was further liberalised and procedures streamlined to enable borrowers to improve access to international financial markets. The government has delegated the ECB sanctioning powers up to US $ 100 million under all schemes to the Reserve Bank. Furthermore, prepayment approvals would be given by the Reserve Bank, as per prevailing guidelines, even in cases where ECBs were approved earlier by the Ministry of Finance. While infrastructure and exports sectors continued to be thrust areas, ECBs could be used for any purpose except investment in real estate and in stock markets. The limit of US $ 50 million on raising ECBs to finance equity investment in a subsidiary/ joint venture implementing infrastructure projects was enhanced to US $ 200 million to provide greater flexibility. All infrastructure projects have been permitted to have ECB exposure to the extent of 50 per cent of the project cost with greater flexibility beyond 50 per cent in the cases of the power sector and other infrastructure projects based on merit. Prepayment of ECBs was allowed from EEFC accounts in addition to the existing avenues. As a procedural simplification, the regional offices of the Reserve Bank would take loan agreements/documents on record for all ECB approvals once the Government/Reserve Bank have approved them. Besides corporates, non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) could avail of facilities under the credit enhancement scheme on compliance with the certain additional conditions, such as registration with the Reserve Bank, ';AA'; or equivalent rating from reputed credit rating agencies and track record of profits during the previous three years. | | | Overall Balance of Payments | | | 6.23 The overall balance of payments recorded a surplus for the fourth year in succession with US $ 6,402 million (1.4 per cent of GDP) during 1999-2000 on top of US $ 4,222 million (1.0 per cent of GDP) in 1998-99, as net capital flows at US $ 10,242 million more than offset the current account deficit during the year. The overall surplus during the year, net of repurchases of US $ 260 million from the IMF, resulted in an accretion of US $ 6,142 million (excluding valuation) to foreign exchange reserves (Table 6.1 and Appendix Table VI.1). | | | FOREIGN EXCHANGE RESERVES | | | 6.24 India's foreign exchange reserves comprising foreign currency assets and gold held by the Reserve Bank and Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) held by the government increased by US $ 5,546 million (Rs. 27,908 crore) during 1999-2000 to US $ 38,036 million (Rs 1,65,913 crore) by end-March 2000 on top of an increase of US $ 3,123 million during 1998-99 (Table 6.9 and Appendix Table VI.8). Concurrently, the Reserve Bank's forward liabilities were limited to a narrow range of US $ 675-997 million during the year, declining from US $ 802 million at end-March 1999 to US $ 675 million (less than two per cent of total reserves) by end-March 2000. Net of outstanding forward liabilities and use of the IMF credit, India's foreign exchange reserves stood at US $ 37,335 million as compared with US $ 31,401 million as at end-March 1999, thereby showing an even higher accretion of US $ 5,934 million during 1999-2000. | 6.25 The expansion of foreign currency assets during 1999-2000 was largely the outcome of net purchases of US $ 3,249 million by the Reserve Bank emanating from surplus supply conditions in the market over the most part of the year, especially since November 1999. Other major transactions on account of foreign currency assets included aid receipts of US $ 1,883 million and interest earnings of US $ 1,365 million on foreign exchange reserves which were offset partly by the acquisition of SDRs (through the IMF) equivalent to US $ 283 million for various payments to the IMF and for maintaining balances in the SDR account. | | | 6.26 Balances under the SDRs held by the government amounted to SDR 2.67 million (US $ 4 million) as at end-March 2000 as compared to SDR 5.94 million (US $ 8 million) as at end-March 1999. A total amount of SDR 209.5 million (equivalent to US $ 283 million) was purchased from the IMF using foreign currency assets while SDR 8.52 million (equivalent to US $ 12 million) were credited on account of various other receipts from the IMF. On the other hand, SDR 221.29 million (equivalent to US $ 300 million) were used for repurchases of domestic currency and various other payment charges to the IMF. | | | Table 6.9: Foreign Exchange Reserves and Use of IMF Credit |
|
|
|
|
|
| (US $ million)
| As at the end of | Gold | SDR | Foreign | Total | Reserve | Outstanding* | | | | | Currency | (2+3+4) | Position in | use of IMF |
|
|
| Assets
|
| the Fund
| Credit (Net)
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| March 1993 | 3,380 | 18 | 6,434 | 9,832 | 296 | 4,799 (3,433) | March 1994 | 4,078 | 108 | 15,068 | 19,254 | 299 | 5,040 (3,568) | March 1995 | 4,370 | 7 | 20,809 | 25,186 | 331 | 4,300 (2,755) | March 1996 | 4,561 | 82 | 17,044 | 21,687 | 310 | 2,374 (1,625) | March 1997 | 4,054 | 2 | 22,367 | 26,423 | 291 | 1,313 (947) | March 1998 | 3,391 | 1 | 25,975 | 29,367 | 283 | 664(497) | March 1999 | 2,960 | 8 | 29,522 | 32,490 | 663 | 287 (212) | March 2000 | 2,974 | 4 | 35,058 | 38,036 | 658 | 26 (19) | June 2000P
| 2,948
| 8
| 33,774
| 36,730
| 653
| 0
| P Provisional. | * Figures in bracket are in SDR million. |
6.27 The value of gold held by the Reserve Bank increased marginally by US $ 14 million during the year to US $ 2,974 million by end-March 2000. During the year, the value of gold fluctuated between US $ 2,654 million (end-July 1999) and US $ 3,216 million (end-October 1999) essentially reflecting the movements in international gold prices. | | | 6.28 During the first quarter of 2000-01, the foreign exchange reserves declined by US $ 1,306 million to US $ 36,730 million as at end-June 2000 as foreign currency assets fell by US $ 1,284 million to US $ 33,774 million reflecting the market demand-supply gap. India's repurchase obligations to the IMF were fully met by the first quarter of 2000-01. | | | 6.29 Foreign exchange reserves not only provide a cushion for short-term demand-supply mismatches in the foreign exchange market but also provide the central bank with a leverage in the conduct of exchange rate policy. Adequacy of the level of reserves could be seen not only in terms of conventional indicators like import cover but also in relation to the size of short-term debt and portfolio investment. | | | 6.30 The overall approach to management of India's foreign exchange reserves has reflected the changing composition of balance of payments and the ';liquidity risks'; associated with different types of flows and other requirements. The policy for reserve management is built upon a host of identifiable factors and other contingencies. Such factors include, inter alia, the size of the current account deficit and the short-term liabilities (including current repayment obligations on long-term loans), the possible variability in portfolio investment and other types of capital flows, the unanticipated pressures on the balance of payments arising out of external shocks and movements in the repatriable foreign currency deposits of non-resident Indians. | | | 6.31 The movements in India's foreign exchange reserves, in recent years, have kept pace with the requirements on the trade as well as the capital accounts. As a matter of policy, foreign exchange reserves are kept at a level that is adequate to cover the liquidity needs in the event of both cyclical and unanticipated shocks. Particularly after the South-East Asian currency crises, there has been a growing opinion that the central banks need to hold reserves far in excess of the levels that were considered desirable going by the conventional indicators. The import cover of reserves improved to about 8.2 months as at end-March 2000 as against 6.5 months as at end-March 1997 while the ratio of short-term debt to reserves declined to 10.6 per cent as at end-March 2000 from 25.5 per cent as at end-March 1997. Even in relation to a broader measure of external liabilities, foreign exchange reserves provide adequate cover. For instance, short-term debt and cumulative portfolio investment inflows taken together were only 59.3 per cent of reserves as at end-March 2000. These ratios remain, by and large, unchanged even if unencumbered reserves (gross reserves net of forward liabilities) are taken into account, given the relatively small size of forward liabilities in the Indian context. The strength of the foreign exchange reserves has also been a positive factor in facilitating flow of portfolio investment by FIIs and in reducing the 'risk premia' on foreign borrowings and Global Depository Receipts (GDR)/ American Depository Receipts (ADR) issued by the Indian corporates. It is, however, important to note that unanticipated domestic or external developments, including undue volatility in asset prices in equity/bond markets, can create disproportionate pressures in the foreign exchange market in emerging economies. | | | EXTERNAL DEBT | | | 6.32 India's external debt increased by 0.8 per cent from US $ 97,666 million as at end-March 1999 to US $ 98,435 million as at end-March 2000. Component-wise, long-term nonresident deposits, multilateral (excepting IMF) and bilateral debt increased while debt owed to the IMF, external commercial borrowings and rupee debt owed to the erstwhile USSR fell in absolute terms. While the proportion of multilateral (excepting IMF) and bilateral debt in the total debt inched up from 49.2 per cent as at end-March 1999 to 50.2 per cent as at end-March 2000 and that of debt under long-term non-resident deposits increased from 12.6 per cent to 14.8 per cent, the share of commercial borrowings (including long-term trade credits) fell from 28.6 per cent to 26.4 per cent and that of rupee debt fell from 4.8 per cent to 4.5 per cent over the same period (Table 6.10 and Appendix Table VI.9). | | | Table 6.10: India's External Debt |
| | | (US $ million) | Item | At the end of March
|
| 2000
| 1999
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 1. Multilateral | 31,317 | 30,534 | 2. Bilateral | 18,056 | 17,498 | 3. IMF | 26 | 287 | 4. Commercial Borrowings (including trade credits) # | 26,025 | 27,885 | 5. NRI Deposits | 14,582 | 12,344 | 6. Rupee Debt | 4,386 | 4,731 | 7. Long Term-Debt (1to 6) | 94,392 | 93,279 | 8. Short-Term Debt * | 4,043 | 4,387 | Total Debt (7+8)
| 98,435
| 97,666
| # Include net investment by 100 per cent FII debt funds. | | | * Excludes suppliers' credits up to 180 days. | | |
6.33 The marginal increase in outstanding debt notwithstanding, the process of consolidation of external debt continued to be strengthened, as may be seen in the movements of the key indicators of debt sustainability. The external debt-GDP ratio declined from 23.5 per cent as at end-March 1999 to 22.0 per cent as at end-March 2000, while the ratio of debt to current receipts fell from 163.4 per cent to 144.3 per cent (Table 6.11). The proportion of short-term debt to total debt declined from 4.5 per cent as at end- March 1999 to 4.1 per cent as at end-March 2000. The decline was on account of short-term NRI deposits which fell from US $ 2,199 million as at end-March 1999 to US $ 1,479 million as at end-March 2000 reflecting the effect of the policy of raising the minimum maturity of FCNR(B) deposits to one year. The element of concessional debt still continues to be significant, rising as a proportion to total debt from 38.2 per cent as at end-March 1999 to 38.5 per cent as at end-March 2000. The debt-service ratio fell from 18.0 per cent in 1998-99 to 16.0 per cent in 1999-2000, with the interest service ratio falling from 8.0 per cent to 7.2 per cent due to a significant increase in current receipts. The ratio of short-term debt to foreign exchange reserves further declined from 13.5 per cent as at end-March 1999 to 10.6 per cent as at end-March 2000. | | | Table 6.11: External Debt Service Payments |
| | | | | (US $ million) |
| Item
| 1999-2000
| 1998-99
| 1997-98
|
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 1. | External Assistance @ | 3,442 | 3,144 | 3,234 | 2. | External Commercial | | | | | | Borrowing * | 4,717 | 4,648 | 4,664 | 3. | IMF # | 276 | 419 | 667 | 4. | NRI Deposits | | | | | | (Interest Payments) | 1,791 | 1,719 | 1,807 | 5. | Rupee Debt Service | 711 | 802 | 767 | 6. | Total Debt Servicing | 10,936 | 10,732 | 11,139 | 7. | Total Current | | | | | | Receipts ** | 68,227 | 59,760 | 58,545 | 8. | Debt Service | | | | | | Ratio (6/7 %) | 16.0 | 18.0 | 19.0 | 9. | Interest Payments to | | | | | | Current Receipts | | | | | | Ratio (%) | 7.2 | 8.0 | 7.5 | 10. | Debt to Current | | | | | | Receipts Ratio (%) | 144.3 | 163.4 | 159.8 | 11. | Liability Service | | | |
| Ratio (%)
| 16.8
| 19.1
| 20.0
|
@ | Inclusive of non-Government account. | * | Inclusive of interest on medium, long term and | | | short term credits. | # | Excluding charges on net cumulative allocation. | ** | Excluding Official Transfers. |
Note: | | Debt service payments given in this table follow accrual method of accounting consistent with balance of payments and may, therefore, vary from those recorded on cash basis. | | | 2. | From the year 1992-93, total current receipts include private transfers on account of contra entry against gold and silver imports. | | | 3. | Liability service ratio represents debt service payments and remittances of profits and dividends taken together as a ratio of total current receipts. |
6.34 The major focus of external debt management has been to attract external resources in the form of non-debt creating flows, especially direct investment inflows while de-emphasising short-term debt and volatile flows (Box VI.5). The shift in emphasis from debt to non-debt flows has underscored the importance of monitoring the stock of total liabilities (debt as well as non-debt) as also the total servicing of liability as opposed to the traditional emphasis on servicing of debt liabilities. Even by this criterion, a downward trend in servicing of liability is seen with the liability service ratio falling from 19.1 per cent in 1998-99 to 16.8 per cent in 1999-2000. | | | 6.35 The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) estimated India's outstanding short-term debt at a higher level - US $ 8.7 billion as at end-December 1999 - on a residual maturity basis as compared with US $ 4.7 billion (as at end-December 1999) in the national database on original maturity basis (Box VI.6). As noted earlier, the short-term debt by original maturity in the national database further declined to US $ 4.0 billion by end-March 2000. The difference between the BIS database and the national database could be attributed to conceptual and coverage factors. The Status Report on External Debt of the Ministry of Finance has estimated short-term debt by residual maturity basis at US $ 10.7 billion or 10.8 per cent of the total debt as at end-December 1999. |
Box VI.5 | External Sector Asset-Liability Management | | | The recent South-East Asian crisis highlighted the criticality of external sector asset-liability management in preventing financial crises. Many developing countries typically finance a large part of domestic investment through external debt. Macroeconomic policies that tend to encourage foreign currency denominated bank loans and portfolio investment rather than direct foreign investment, often result in exchange rate overvaluation and accumulation of unhedged foreign currency borrowing giving rise to potential adverse consequences such as large scale capital flight and reserve loss. The need for prudential judgment and proper risk management on the part of the borrowing entities has, therefore, emerged as a key condition for efficient management of external liabilities. | | | Another important source of mismatch could arise from the maturity structure. The issue of appropriate maturity, until recently, was commonly considered to be a microeconomic decision left to the judgment of the borrowing entities. Short-term borrowing, while often relatively cheap, raises the frequency of the repayment profile and escalates vulnerability, especially in thin markets, leading to a run on reserves. Various macro-management rules have been suggested to strike a balance between risks and costs to ward off potential crises. Countries could, for example, manage their external assets and liabilities in such a way that they are able to live without net foreign borrowing for one year. Alternately, the average maturity of a country's external liabilities could exceed a certain threshold, such as three years and involve a degree of private sector ';burden sharing'; in times of crisis. | | | The emphasis on external sector asset liability management has, in recent years, shifted from the narrow perspective of management of just the foreign exchange reserves to management of a country's International Investment Position (IIP), which gives an account of an economy's balance sheet of the stock of external financial assets and liabilities. Some countries, e.g., New Zealand, have even drawn up complete national balance sheets for the purpose of asset-liability management. In recognition of the importance of external balance sheet data, the International Monetary Fund has recently initiated the process of introduction of comprehensive and timely data on IIP and external debt statistics under its Special Data Dissemination Standards (SDDS). Furthermore, it is important that off-balance sheet contingent liabilities are recognised and kept within manageable limits. Simple balance-sheet rules, however, need to be supplemented by other approaches to risk management, viz., Value-at-Risk (VaR), Cost-at-Risk (CaR) and liquidity-at-risk. It is also now believed that liquidity risks could be better reduced through ';dynamic cushions'; such as ';liquidity options'; instead of static ones done through the ';risk models';. | | | With regard to external liabilities, India's policy places emphasis on encouraging non-debt creating flows, especially direct investment inflows and discouraging short-term and volatile capital flows. External commercial borrowings (ECBs) are subject to an approval process within an overall ceiling consistent with prudent debt management. While the policy gives preference to infrastructure, core and export sectors, end-use restrictions in speculative activities (e.g., real estate) and maturity specifications have been stipulated to avoid piling up of volatile flows. Short-term debt is carefully monitored and is allowed only for trade purposes subject to a quantitative ceiling. The flow of NRI deposits is regulated through the use of monetary instruments such as reserve requirements and maturity prescriptions. The market determined exchange rate and the absence of any official exchange guarantees have meant stricter risk evaluation by corporates and banks that incur ECBs and accept deposits. Moreover, funds raised through ECBs and the FCNR(B) scheme are permitted to be held abroad in select instruments so as to provide Indian corporates and banks sufficient leeway in their conduct of asset-liability management. In order to encourage non-debt creating long-term flows, foreign direct investment has been progressively liberalised with the widening of sectors under automatic route, except for a few select negative list industries. Portfolio investment in domestic markets is restricted to select investors, viz., FIIs and high networth individuals and corporates and are subject to overall ceilings. Regulation of external liabilities/assets of the banking system in India encompasses several broad areas of banks' operating environment and internal governance (e.g., open position limits, aggregate gap limits, access to external funds, etc.) and market discipline (information dissemination) with a view to developing a broad oversight of the banking sector's ability and capacity to manage its own risks. | | | On the asset management side, the level of official reserves constitutes a critical pillar of external stability. The Indian policy has, therefore, favoured a steady build-up of reserves by encouraging non-debt flows, reassessing the reserve adequacy in terms of volume of short-term debt and stock of portfolio holdings, maintaining a cushion so as to withstand both cyclical and unanticipated shocks and limiting the extent of encumbrances on reserves such as through forward liabilities. Moreover, consistent with the current trend in asset-liability management, the government has set up a high level Steering Committee and a Technical Group to work out the modalities for more active sovereign external asset-liability management in India. The group in collaboration with the World Bank is developing a risk management model for sovereign external liability management in India. | | | References | | | 1. | Dooley, Michael, Alberto Calderon Zuleta and Rodrigo Ocejo, (1999), ';Issues in the Interface between Debt Management Strategy and Macroeconomic Policy';, Second Sovereign Debt Management Forum, Compilation of Presentations from a Conference held at the World Bank in Washington, D.C., November 1-3. | 2. | Greenspan, Alan, (1999), Recent Trends in the Management of Foreign Exchange Reserves, Speech at the World Bank Conference on Recent Trends in Reserve Management, Washington D.C., April 19. | 3. | Jalan, Bimal, (1999), ';International Financial Architecture: Developing Countries' Perspectives';, Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, October. | 4. | Reddy, Y.V., (1999), ';Development of Forex Markets: Indian Experience';, Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, October. | 5. | Reserve Bank of India, (1993), Report of the High-level Committee on the Balance of Payments (Chairman: Dr.C. Rangarajan), Mumbai. |
Box VI.6 | India's Short-term Debt | | | The BIS Consolidated Banking Statistics (CBS) provides data on banks' international assets based on the location of the head office of reporting banks and represents world-wide consolidated international on-balance sheet claims. The data are based mainly on the country of incorporation of the reporting institutions and measure the international lending activities of banks' head offices in the reporting countries and all their offices at home and abroad. The positions between offices of the same banks are netted out. The data are supplemented by information from foreign banks in reporting countries on their international lending activities on an unconsolidated basis. The reporting countries are G-10 plus Luxembourg, Austria, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Norway and Spain. The CBS data measure international indebtedness to the country of origin (the location of head office) rather than the country of residence of reporting banks. Thus, the data are based on the country of ultimate risk and therefore do not follow the residency criterion associated with the BoP and external debt compilations. The maturity profile is broken up into the categories of (i) up to and including one year, (ii) over one year and up to and including two years and (iii) over two years. | | | Besides the data compilation on residual maturity basis (i.e., inclusion of long- and medium-term debt falling due within the next 12 months), the BIS data have other features distinct from the national data base. The BIS data are inclusive of suppliers' credits of up to 180 days to the extent that these credits find their way to the reporting bank's balance sheet, while the national data do not capture such transactions. Moreover, the BIS data include local claims in non-local currency, which represent transactions between residents and, therefore, do not strictly follow the residency criterion. The coverage of BIS statistics is limited to total bank lending to India which at end-December 1999 amounted to US $ 22 billion as against total external debt of about US $ 99 billion in the national data base. Notwithstanding the coverage factor, it is generally recognised that there would be some differences in data emanating from a creditor based system (as that of the BIS) and a debtor recording system (as that of the national data base) due to different basis of valuation in data recording. It is for these reasons the data on short-term debt as given by the BIS and the national database differ. |
EXCHANGE RATE MANAGEMENT | | | 6.36 The developments in the exchange rate during 1999-2000 continued to be guided by the policy objective of ensuring that the external value of the Rupee is realistic and credible as evidenced by a sustainable CAD and manageable reserve situation. At the same time, in order to even out lumpy demand and supply in the relatively thin forex market and to smoothen sharp movements, the Reserve Bank makes sales and purchases of foreign currency as considered necessary. With a view to promoting orderly development of foreign exchange markets and facilitating external payments in a liberalised regime, the Government passed a new legislation viz., Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), which came into effect from June 1, 2000 (Box VI.7). | | | 6.37 The exchange rate of the Indian rupee vis-a-vis the US dollar traded within a range of Rs.42.44-Rs.43.64 during 1999-2000. The movements in the foreign exchange market during the year could be viewed in terms of three phases, viz., the first, April-May 1999, the second, June-October and the third, November 1999 onwards. While the first and third phases witnessed excess supply conditions in the foreign exchange market, the second phase saw excess demand conditions. | | | 6.38 The first phase, April-May 1999, saw the continuance of overall excess supply witnessed since the last quarter of 1998-99, particularly March 1999. The rupee traded in the narrow range of Rs.42.44-Rs.42.99 per US dollar during this period. The Reserve Bank's net purchases of foreign currency amounted to US $ 1,013 million during the first phase. |
Box VI.7 | Foreign Exchange Management Act | | | With the objective of facilitating external trade and payments and for promoting the orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange markets in India, the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) replaced Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA), 1973 with effect from June 1, 2000. The FEMA is consistent with full current account convertibility and contains provisions for progressive liberalisation of capital account transactions. | | | The FEMA is more transparent in its application as it lays down the areas requiring specific permission of the Reserve Bank/Government of India on acquisition/holding of foreign exchange. In the remaining cases, funds can be remitted and assets/liabilities can be incurred in accordance with the specific provisions laid down in the Act. Foreign exchange transactions have been classified in two categories: capital account, which alters the assets or liabilities outside India of persons resident in India or alters the assets or liabilities in India of persons resident outside India (for instance, transactions in property and investments and lending and borrowing money) and current account transactions. The FEMA provides powers to the Reserve Bank for specifying, in consultation with the Central Government, the classes of permissible capital account transactions and limits to which exchange is admissible for such transactions. The Exchange Earners' Foreign Currency (EEFC) and Resident Foreign Currency (RFC) account holders are freely permitted to use the funds held in these accounts for payment of all permissible current account transactions. Rules made by the Central Government under this Act permit remittances for all current transactions through authorised dealers (ADs) without any monetary/percentage ceiling except for certain prohibited transactions (eight items, like lotteries, banned magazines, football pools, etc.) and transactions which require approval from the Central Government (eleven items, irrespective of the amount) or the Reserve Bank (sixteen items, wherein the remittance sought for exceeds the indicative limit). | | | The indicative limits in the case of certain current payments have been revised upwards. For instance, residents undertaking business visits are allowed to draw up to US $ 25,000 per trip irrespective of the period of stay. Further, ceilings pertaining to miscellaneous remittances such as the basic travel quota (BTQ), gift, donations, employment and emigration have been revised upwards to US $ 5,000. The exchange drawn can be used for purposes other than for which it is drawn provided drawal of exchange is otherwise permitted for such purpose. | | | The Act gives full freedom to a person resident in India, who was earlier resident outside India, to hold/own/ transfer any foreign security/immovable property situated outside India and acquired when he/she was resident there. | | | The regulations under FEMA for foreign investment in India and Indian investments abroad are also comprehensive, transparent and permit Indian companies engaged in certain specified sectors to acquire shares of foreign companies, engaged in similar activities by share swap or exchange through the issuance of ADRs/GDRs up to certain specified limits. | | | FEMA is a civil law unlike FERA. The contraventions of the Act provide for arrest only in exceptional cases. There is no presumption of mens-rea under FEMA, that is, the burden of proof will be on the enforcement agency and not on the person in question. The Act provides for powers of adjudicating officers at par with Income Tax authorities, with an Appelate Tribunal, which would hear appeals against the orders of the adjudicating authority. Further, unlike FERA, FEMA does not apply to Indian citizens resident outside India. | | | 6.39 The second phase, June-October 1999 (particularly up to September 1999) experienced excess demand conditions on account of the prevailing uncertainty in the markets. In the wake of uncertainty following the border tensions during June 1999, the spot segment of merchant transactions was marked by excess demand of US $ 683 million as against an excess supply of US $ 311 million during the previous month (Tables 6.12 and 6.13). As a result, the rupee moved down to Rs.43.39 per US dollar by June 25, 1999. On account of the Reserve Bank's market operations along side the reiteration of its policy to meet temporary demand-supply mismatches in the foreign exchange market, the rupee ended the month at Rs.43.36 per US dollar. The forward premia declined in July 1999 after stability returned to the foreign exchange market. | | | 6.40 The demand-supply gap in the foreign exchange market, however, again widened towards end-August 1999 reflecting uncertainty in the market. For instance, excess demand rose from US $ 95 million during July 1999 to US $ 775 million during August 1999 in the spot segment and from US $ 1,109 million to US $ 1,689 million in the forward segment of merchant transactions. In order to reduce the temporary demand-supply mismatches, the Reserve Bank indicated its readiness to meet fully/partly foreign exchange requirements on account of crude oil imports and government debt service payments. In the period from end-August 1999 to March 2000, the rupee traded in a narrow band around Rs.43.50 per US dollar with the exchange rate as at end-March 2000 being Rs. 43.61 per US dollar as excess demand prevailing up to September-October 1999 turned into excess supply conditions. Over the period June-September 1999, the Reserve Bank's market operations in foreign exchange market resulted in net sales of US $ 1.3 billion as against net purchases of US $ 1.0 billion during April-May 1999 (Table 6.14). The forward premia firmed up in August 1999 with the onset of excess demand conditions in the foreign exchange market. | | | Table 6.12: Merchant Transactions in the Foreign Exchange Market |
| | | | | | | (US $ million) | | | Spot
| Forward
| Merchant | Month
| Purchases
| Sales
| Net
| Purchases
| Sales
| Net
| Turnover*
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| 8
| 1999 | | | | | | | | April | 4,522 | 4,583 | - 61 | 1,401 | 2,869 | - 1,468 | 17,862 | May | 5,180 | 4,869 | 311 | 1,791 | 2,549 | - 758 | 20,391 | June | 4,469 | 5,152 | - 683 | 1,158 | 2,444 | - 1,286 | 17,651 | July | 5,261 | 5,356 | - 95 | 1,608 | 2,717 | - 1,109 | 20,738 | August | 4,962 | 5,737 | - 775 | 1,198 | 2,887 | - 1,689 | 19,982 | September | 3,791 | 4,192 | - 401 | 957 | 1,756 | - 799 | 14,732 | October | 4,596 | 4,740 | - 144 | 1,655 | 2,410 | - 755 | 17,788 | November | 5,650 | 5,624 | 26 | 2,174 | 2,489 | - 315 | 20,761 | December | 7,030 | 6,473 | 557 | 1,719 | 2,033 | - 314 | 20,822 | | | | | | | | | | 2000 | | | | | | | | January | 5,830 | 5,971 | - 141 | 2,033 | 2,969 | - 936 | 22,006 | February | 6,875 | 6,076 | 799 | 2,048 | 3,684 | - 1,636 | 24,619 | March | 8,968 | 8,254 | 714 | 2,142 | 2,194 | - 52 | 26,634 | April | 5,865 | 6,067 | - 202 | 1,608 | 2,453 | - 845 | 20,000 | May | 5,768 | 6,623 | - 855 | 1,838 | 3,747 | - 1,909 | 21,930 | June
| 6,553
| 6,786
| - 233
| 1,348
| 2,679
| - 1,331
| 21,038
| * Include cross-currency (i.e., foreign currency to foreign currency, both spot and forward) transactions and cancellation/ re-booking of forward contracts. |
Table 6.13: Inter-bank Transactions in the Foreign Exchange Market |
| | | | | | | (US $ million) | | | Spot
| Forward/Swap
| Inter-bank | Month
| Purchases
| Sales
| Net
| Purchases
| Sales
| Net
| Turnover*
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| 8
| 1999 | | | | | | | | April | 9,873 | 9,636 | 237 | 14,234 | 14,814 | - 580 | 67,556 | May | 9,982 | 10,563 | - 581 | 15,055 | 14,448 | 607 | 74,782 | June | 11,076 | 10,510 | 566 | 14,487 | 13,942 | 545 | 75,440 | July | 9,902 | 10,218 | - 316 | 16,638 | 16,093 | 545 | 80,652 | August | 10,523 | 9,766 | 757 | 17,774 | 16,041 | 1,733 | 82,570 | September | 7,449 | 6,918 | 531 | 12,191 | 11,297 | 894 | 62,051 | October | 10,331 | 10,262 | 69 | 13,793 | 14,099 | - 306 | 70,916 | November | 9,355 | 9,297 | 58 | 12,277 | 12,344 | - 67 | 63,546 | December | 10,111 | 9,896 | 215 | 12,536 | 11,648 | 888 | 63,588 | | | | | | | | | | 2000 | | | | | | | | January | 10,088 | 9,252 | 836 | 15,021 | 14,742 | 279 | 73,464 | February | 11,245 | 11,300 | - 55 | 20,847 | 19,736 | 1,111 | 93,670 | March | 13,174 | 14,210 | - 1,036 | 19,208 | 18,007 | 1,201 | 89,879 | April | 8,017 | 6,627 | 1,390 | 14,893 | 13,601 | 1,292 | 60,829 | May | 15,472 | 13,474 | 1,998 | 22,209 | 21,742 | 467 | 1,05,192 | June
| 12,721
| 12,072
| 649
| 22,677
| 21,895
| 782
| 1,07,406
| * These data are on gross basis and include cross-currency (i.e., foreign currency to foreign currency, both spot and forward) transactions. |
Table 6.14: Purchases and Sales of US Dollars by the Reserve Bank |
| | | | | | | | | (US $ million) | Month | Sales(-)/ | * Cumu- | Outstand- | | | Pur- | lative since | ing Forward | | | chases | April 1999 | Sales (-)/ |
|
|
| Purchases #
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 1999 | | | | April | 38 | 38 | - 732 | May | 975 | 1013 | - 732 | June | - 157 | 856 | - 972 | July | - 363 | 493 | - 877 | August | - 242 | 251 | - 997 | September | - 526 | - 274 | - 997 | October | - 10 | - 284 | - 912 | November | 621 | 337 | - 744 | December | 351 | 688 | - 744 | | | | | | 2000 | | | | January | 170 | 857 | - 922 | February | 744 | 1,601 | - 825 | March | 1,648 | 3,249 | - 675 | April | 368 | 3,617 | - 670 | May | - 897 | 2,720 | - 1,380 | June
| - 1,051
| 1,669
| - 1,693
|
* Include spot, swap and forward transactions besides transactions under Resurgent India Bonds (RIBs). | # Outstanding at the end of the month. |
6.41 The third phase, from November 1999 to March 2000, was again characterised by excess supply conditions due to recovery in exports coupled with sustained portfolio inflows. The Reserve Bank, therefore, could make up for reserve losses in the earlier part of the year with a net purchase of US $ 3.5 billion from November 1999 to March 2000 resulting in net purchases of US $ 3.2 billion for the year as a whole. The forward premia eased with the return of excess supply conditions in the foreign exchange market. | | | 6.42 The exchange rate of the Indian rupee vis-a-vis the US dollar averaged Rs.43.33 during 1999-2000 indicating a depreciation of about 2.9 per cent over that of Rs.42.07 during the previous year. Based on 5-country effective exchange rate indices, the nominal effective exchange rate (NEER) of the rupee depreciated by 2.9 per cent during 1999-2000 while the real effective exchange rate (REER) depreciated by 1.2 per cent (Chart VI.5). Similar trends were seen in the case of the broader trade-based 36-country indices with the NEER and the REER depreciating by 2.4 per cent and 0.2 per cent, respectively (Appendix Table VI.10). | | | 
| | | 6.43 During the first quarter of 2000-01, demand pressures prevailed in the foreign exchange market, reflecting the higher oil import payments and reduced capital inflows. The exchange rate depreciated from Rs.43.64 per US dollar during April 2000 to Rs. 44.28 on May 25, 2000 as the market was characterised by considerable uncertainty. This was reflected in the widening of excess demand in the spot as well as forward segments of the merchant transactions during May 2000. While the excess demand in the spot segment increased from US $ 202 million in April 2000 to US $ 855 million in May 2000, that in the forward segment increased from US $ 845 million to US $ 1,909 million. In order to reduce the uncertainty in the foreign exchange market, the Reserve Bank undertook the following policy actions on May 25, 2000: (i) an interest rate surcharge of 50 per cent of the lending rate on import finance was imposed with effect from May 26, 2000, as a temporary measure, on all non-essential imports, (ii) it was indicated that the Reserve Bank would meet, partially or fully, the Government debt service payments directly as considered necessary; (iii) arrangements would be made to meet, partially or fully, the foreign exchange requirements for import of crude oil by the Indian Oil Corporation; (iv) the Reserve Bank would continue to sell US dollars through State Bank of India in order to augment supply in the market or intervene directly as considered necessary to meet any temporary demand-supply imbalances; (v) banks would charge interest at 25 per cent per annum (minimum) from the date the bill falls due for payment in respect of overdue export bills in order to discourage any delay in realisation of export proceeds; (vi) authorised dealers acting on behalf of FIIs could approach the Reserve Bank to procure foreign exchange at the prevailing market rate and the Reserve Bank would, depending on market conditions, either sell the foreign exchange directly or advise the concerned bank to buy it in the market; and (vii) banks were advised to enter into transactions in the forex market only on the basis of genuine requirements and not for the purpose of building up speculative positions. In addition, the Reserve Bank made net sales of US $ 1,948 million during May-June 2000 to meet temporary demand-supply mismatches. In response to these measures, the rupee regained stability and it traded within a narrow range of Rs.44.57-Rs.44.79 per US dollar during June 2000. | | | 6.44 The exchange rate of the rupee which was moving in a range of Rs. 44.67 - Rs. 44.73 per US dollar during the first half of July 2000 moved to Rs. 45.02 per US dollar on July 21, 2000. On a review of developments in the international and domestic financial markets, including the foreign exchange market, the Reserve Bank took the following measures on July 21, 2000: (i) Bank Rate was increased by 1 percentage point from 7 per cent to 8 per cent as at the close of business on July 21, 2000; (ii) CRR was increased by 0.5 percentage point from 8 per cent to 8.5 per cent in two stages by 0.25 percentage point each effective from fortnights beginning July 29, 2000 and August 12, 2000, respectively; and (iii) the limits available to banks for refinance facilities including the collateralised lending facility (CLF) were reduced temporarily to the extent of 50 per cent of the eligible limits under two equal stages effective from July 29, 2000 and August 12, 2000. | | | 6.45 Reflecting the relative stability in foreign exchange market as well as the downward movements in the domestic interest rates, the forward premia continued to ease during 1999-2000. The average six-month forward premia, which were ruling over 10 per cent in June 1998, declined to 3.4 per cent by March 2000. For the fiscal year, as a whole, the average six-month forward premia declined from 7.9 per cent in 1998-99 to 4.7 per cent in 1999-2000 (Table 6.15). In the recent period, there has been a close correspondence between the forward premia and the interest rate differential proxied by difference between the overnight domestic money market rate and the 3-month US dollar LIBOR (Chart VI.6). |
Table 6.15: Forward Premia | (Monthly Average) |
| | | | (Per cent per annum) | | | | | | Month
| 1-month
| 3-month
| 6-month
| 1
| 2
| 3
| 4
| | | | | | 1999 | | | | April | 5.67 | 6.06 | 6.74 | May | 4.70 | 5.09 | 5.54 | June | 4.54 | 4.99 | 5.23 | July | 3.99 | 4.27 | 4.58 | August | 4.68 | 4.54 | 4.83 | September | 5.33 | 5.22 | 5.47 | October | 5.76 | 5.47 | 5.57 | November | 3.89 | 4.59 | 4.82 | December | 3.39 | 3.88 | 4.14 | | | | | | 2000 | | | | January | 3.11 | 3.27 | 3.41 | February | 3.31 | 3.04 | 2.86 | March | 4.56 | 3.83 | 3.40 | April | 2.18 | 2.59 | 2.76 | May | 2.16 | 2.29 | 2.51 | June | 3.70 | 3.32 | 3.17 |
|
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS | | | 6.46 The global economy registered a V-shaped recovery in 1999 with the actual growth rate projected at 3.3 per cent in the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook (WEO), exceeding the earlier estimates of 2.9 per cent (Appendix Table VI.11). The world economic growth is projected to strengthen to about 4.2 per cent in 2000. While uncertainties about the sustainability of the current order of global economic growth remain, advanced economies are expected to record stronger growth, as per the latest WEO forecasts, driven partly by a stable macroeconomic environment and the rally in equity prices and partly reflecting the success achieved in entrenching effective macro policy adjustment and in greater adherence to international standards as a part of the development of international financial architecture (Box VI.8). | | | 6.47 Developing economies, particularly in Asia emerged out of their recent economic downturn, with the forecast of a robust performance for 2000. Developing countries, as a whole, are expected to grow at 5.4 per cent in 2000 as against 3.8 per cent in 1999. The crisis affected emerging Asian markets seem to have recovered faster than expected, with ASEAN-4 growth forecasts for 2000 improving to 4.0 per cent in contrast to a decline of 9.5 per cent in 1998. The growth prospects of these economies and their return to financial market stability have been shaped by successful adoption of macroeconomic adjustment policies backed by stricter enforcement of prudential standards in the financial sector (Box VI.9). | | | 6.48 According to the IMF, the resurgence in world trade is expected to follow global economic recovery in 1999. The growth in world trade volumes is projected to accelerate to 7.9 per cent in 2000 from 4.6 per cent in 1999 and 4.2 per cent in 1998. | | | 6.49 Certain global developments could pose serious risks to sustainable global growth. These include: (i) the possibility of a sustained increase in oil prices, which has doubled since early 1999, (ii) the perceived overvaluation of developed country stock markets and the associated risk emanating from sudden corrections and (iii) the asynchronous growth among the advanced economies, with the corresponding downside risks of large payment imbalances and realignment of the major currencies. | | | Box VI.8 | International Core Principles, Standards and Codes | | | The development and implementation of internationally recognised standards and codes of good practices is being increasingly emphasised as a critical element in the ongoing initiatives for strengthening the international financial architecture. Adherence to such standards is expected to result in better-informed lending and investment decisions, smoother adjustment of markets to economic developments, reduced vulnerability to contagion and increased accountability of policy makers and thereby lead to improved economic performance. The IMF has taken the initiative in developing standards and codes in the areas of data dissemination, transparency in fiscal policy and monetary and financial transparency while core principles on banking supervision have been generally acknowledged to be developed by the Basle Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS). Other international institutions such as the International Organisation of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), the International Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS), the Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems (CPSS), the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) on Money Laundering and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are also actively involved in the development of standards relevant to their respective areas of expertise. The IMF established the Special Data Dissemination Standards (SDDS) in April 1996, in order to enhance the timely availability of comprehensive statistics relating to the real, fiscal, financial and external sectors of the economy. The General Data Dissemination System (GDDS), a vehicle for supporting improvements in the statistical database of member countries which have not subscribed to the SDDS, has recently moved into its operational phase. The IMF Codes on Fiscal Transparency (approved in 1998) and Good Practices on Transparency in Monetary and Financial Policies (approved in September 1999), require clear delineation of the roles and responsibilities of monetary and fiscal authorities, harmonisation of international statistical and accounting standards and public information, with assurances of integrity through external audit and independent scrutiny. The latter includes public disclosure of the central bank's balance sheet and information on foreign exchange reserves. | | | The Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision were developed by the BCBS in September 1997 in co-operation with supervisors from non-G-10 countries, the IMF and the World Bank in response to the banking sector infirmities that were at the root of many recent financial crises. The IOSCO is evolving the Principles of Securities Market Regulation. The IAIS Task Force has drafted a methodology on Core Principles on Insurance Regulation. The BCBS has issued accounting and auditing guidelines on sound practices for loan accounting and disclosure by banks and is also reviewing the International Accounting Standards (IAS) for their relevance to bank supervisors. The International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) has published an issues paper on insurance accounting. The IOSCO and the IAIS are assessing the applicability of IAS principles for cross-border securities offerings/listing and the insurance industry, respectively. The World Bank is also developing a diagnostic tool for country assessment of accounting standards and country practices. The Principles of Corporate Governance are being used by the OECD and the World Bank as a basis for consultation with emerging and transition economies for improving corporate governance practices. A consultative document on the Core Principles for Systemically Important Payment Systems (CPSIPS) has been issued and work is in progress on elaborating the interpretation and applicability of the CPSIPS in different contexts. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) has developed the Model Law on Cross Border Solvency, which is being examined in various countries. The IMF has published a report on 'Orderly and Effective Insolvency Procedures' that sets out the policy choices for countries designing insolvency systems. The World Bank, in association with international organisations and insolvency experts is developing principles and guidelines on insolvency regimes for developing countries. An assessment matrix is also being developed by the World Bank to be used in pilot assessments. An important development in the context of standards and codes has been the initiation of experimental case studies or Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes (ROSCs) by the Fund, in collaboration with the national authorities and the World Bank. | | | India is a member of the group of 20 (G-20) countries, which advises the Financial Stability Forum and is one of the earliest members of the IMF to voluntarily undertake the Financial Sector Assessment Programme (FSAP). India complied with almost all the Core Principles of Effective Banking Supervision and is one of the early subscribers to the SDDS. The Reserve Bank has constituted a Standing Committee on International Financial Standards and Codes (Chairman: Dr. Y.V.Reddy) which would identify and monitor developments in global standards and codes being evolved, especially in the context of the international developments and discussions as part of the efforts to create a sound international financial architecture, consider all aspects of applicability of these standards and codes to the Indian financial system and as necessary and desirable, chalk a road map for aligning India's standards and practices in the light of evolving international practices. The Committee would periodically review the status and progress in regard to the codes and practices and make available its reports to all concerned organisations in the public or private sector. The Committee has set up non-official advisory groups in ten major subject areas - accounting and auditing, banking supervision, bankruptcy, corporate governance, data dissemination, fiscal transparency, insurance regulation, transparency of monetary and financial policies, payments and settlement system and securities market regulation -with eminent external experts, to examine the feasibility and time frame of compliance with international best practices. | | | References | | |
1. | Financial Stability Forum, (2000), Compendium of Standards. | 2. | International Monetary Fund, (1999), Experimental IMF Reports on Observance of Standards and Codes -Overview and Invitation to Comment, Washington, September. | 3. | (2000), Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes (ROSCs): An Update, March. |
6.50 The experience with asset price rallies in several industrialised economies, particularly the US economy, has posed issues of sustainability and the extent to which systemic stability for the world economy could be threatened. Asset price rallies entail significant risks in the form of higher inflation and a wider current account deficit, if domestic supply fails to respond to the rising demand. If a bull run is not sustained, there is also the threat of financial instability and lost output, which may arise out of sudden correction of asset values and significant downward adjustment of aggregate demand. Under these conditions, the monetary policy reaction to asset price inflation assumes crucial significance. If the stock prices in developed countries continue to surge and are perceived as unsustainable and responded to by a significant increase in interest rates by developed economies, this could precipitate reversal of capital flows to developing economies and raise the cost of international borrowings. A concommitant increase in interest rates in developing economies might follow, although this would hurt the process of recovery. | | | 6.51 According to the IMF, the depreciation in the value of the Euro since its launch in January 1999 is expected to be corrected over time and the policy concern has been that this correction should be orderly. With economic growth in the US and the Euro zone tending to converge further in 2000 and given that the interest rate stance of both the US Federal Reserve Board and the ECB may not allow the existing interest rate differentials to widen, the correction for the 'misalignment' could be largely led by the BoP developments, the pace of recovery in the Euro zone and the expected returns on the respective stock markets. | | | Similarly, the appreciation of the Japanese yen since summer 1999 represents a risk to corporate profits, and hence to Japan's recovery. Despite the appreciation, Japan's current account balance is expected to record a surplus of 2.2 per cent of GDP in 2000 as compared with that of 2.6 per cent of GDP in 1999. Benefiting from the recent global recovery, Japan could further increase its exports notwithstanding the appreciation of the yen, although resurgence of private consumption could be important for improved growth prospects. | | | 6.52 The advanced economies, according to the IMF, may tighten monetary policy to minimise risks of inflation emanating from the asset price boom and strong growth. In fact, the US Federal Reserve has, over the past year, raised the federal funds rate by 175 basis points to 6.5 per cent (in five phases of 25 basis points each in June, August, November 1999, February and March 2000 and 50 basis points in May 2000), while the ECB raised the rates by an equivalent 175 basis points in phases between November 1999 and June 2000. Higher interest rates in the US and Europe, in conjunction with the need to keep interest rates low in many emerging markets of Asia and Latin America to support the recovery process, may adversely affect capital flows to emerging markets, posing a risk to their growth prospects. Net private capital flows to emerging market economies rose modestly to US $ 80.5 billion in 1999 from a decade low of US $ 75.1 billion in 1998, mainly on account of the subdued levels of gross flows and substantial net repayments to banks, particularly, in Asia. If high oil prices continue to exert pressure, oil-importing countries may have to choose between financing higher CADs through costlier foreign capital (with corresponding external debt problems) or 'sacrifice' growth by compressing non-oil imports so as to contain CADs. | | | Box VI.9 | International Initiatives for Strengthening Financial Stability | | | The 1990s witnessed several worldwide financial crises in which financial instability originating in one part spread to other parts of the world through the contagion effect. This has brought to the fore the inadequacies in the existing international frameworks to deal with the complex challenges of globalisation and in turn, prompted measures to institute a more stable and resilient international financial order. The recent measures for reforming the international financial system have taken three forms viz., (i) identification of vulnerability indicators, development of sound international codes/ standards/ best practices and creation of incentives ensuring transparent compliance, and more effective surveillance/monitoring mechanisms to enable designing and implementation of more appropriate crisis prevention measures, (ii) introduction of pre-emptive measures when a ';bubble'; or ';misalignment'; is generally perceived to be developing in order to avoid ';hard-landings'; and (iii) designing a framework for appropriate crisis management. | | | The international liquidity support available to crisis affected countries has been enhanced in recent years with the recognition that sudden and large outflows in the capital account could trigger exceptional BoP problems which could threaten the international monetary system through contagion. The IMF instituted a new Supplemental Reserve Facility (SRF) in December 1997 keeping in view the sudden spurt in demand for its resources in the aftermath of the Asian crises and committed SDR 9.95 billion to Korea in December 1997, SDR 4 billion to Russia in July 1998 and SDR 9.1 billion to Brazil in December 1998 under the SRF. The Contingent Credit Line (CCL) was created in April 1999 to help members having sound and well managed economies but vulnerable to the danger of contagion. The Eleventh General Review of Quotas, which came into effect on January 22, 2000, enabled the IMF to increase its general resources from SDR 145.6 billion to SDR 212.0 billion. Countries receiving resources under the SRF and CCL would be required to demonstrate their efforts to maintain constructive relationship with private creditors in order to contain the moral hazard problem associated with such bail-outs. Unlike the SRF and other Fund facilities, countries would not have to establish a BoP need to access resources up to 300-500 per cent of their quota, provided the prescribed conditionality are satisfied. | | | There have been several suggestions for involving private creditors in crisis management, given the relatively meagre resources at the disposal of international financial institutions like the IMF and the World Bank in relation to private capital flows. The Report of the Working Group on Financial Crises in Emerging Markets prepared by the Institute of International Finance in January 1999 suggests that the creditor-debtor relationships should be institutionalised keeping in view the four stages undergone by countries that experience financial crisis, viz., normal market access, incipient crisis, crisis resolution and capital market re-entry. Other suggestions include: (i) institution of private sector contingent credit lines, (ii) introduction of call-option-like features in the inter-bank credit lines, (iii) put-option-type instruments in respect of outstanding external liabilities in the form of bonds and (iv) introduction of structured notes which lowers (increases) the debt service payments during crisis situations (normal times). Introduction of collective action clauses in the international bonds along with empowerment of the IMF to enforce standstills are also being viewed as critical to restrain ';rush for exits'; by creditors. Most of these initiatives, however, are at the formative stages. | | | Crisis prevention initiatives have developed along comprehensive lines. A key concentration area has been the development and dissemination of international standards/codes/best practices in areas that are perceived as critical from the standpoint of a country's vulnerability ( Box VI.8). The issue of international arrangements that could ensure regular assessment of a country's observance of standards and codes, however, remains unresolved in view of the need to strike a balance between the ';need for transparency'; and the ';need for confidentiality'; on the one hand and the ';need for comprehensiveness'; and the ';need for selectivity and flexibility'; on the other. The IMF, nevertheless, has widened its surveillance mechanism to encompass analyses of financial sector soundness, capital account issues, and vulnerability to crises through a joint Fund-Bank Financial Sector Assessment Programme (FSAP), initiated in 1999. | | | Other important initiatives include the setting up of the Financial Stability Forum (FSF) by the G-7 finance ministers and central bank governors, in February 1999, to promote international financial stability through enhanced information exchange and international cooperation in financial market supervision and surveillance. Several suggestions have also been made such as the creation of international bankruptcy courts, the need for a global lender of last resort, the setting up of international credit insurance corporation, as also a global regulator and cross holding of subordinated debt by banks in the context of the ongoing debate on reforming the international financial architecture. Sound domestic macro-economic policies along with these new international initiatives are expected to limit the future vulnerability of domestic and international financial systems. | | | References |
1. | Drage, John and Fiona Mann, (1999), ';Improving the Stability of the International Financial System';, Financial Stability Review, Issue 6, Bank of England, June. | 2. | Crockett, Andrew (1997), ';Why is Financial Stability a Goal of Public Policy?';, Symposium on Maintaining Financial Stability in a Global Economy, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, August 28-30. |
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